RNA is made up of nucleotides, and each nucleotide consists of a nucleobase which is also known as a nitrogenous base. Nucleic acids were discovered in 1868 by Friedrich Miescher, who has called the material ‘nuclein' since it was found in the nucleus. Later on, it was actually discovered that even prokaryotic cells, which do not have a nucleus, might also contain nucleic acids.

The role of RNA in protein synthesis was first seen in 1939. Severo Ochoa won the 1959 Nobel Prize in Medicine after he discovered how RNA can be synthesized. The sequence of the 77 nucleotides of yeast RNA was found by Robert W. Holley in 1965, this enabled Holley to receive the 1968 Nobel Prize in Medicine. Some RNA molecules play a very active role in the cells by catalyzing biological reaction and also in controlling gene expression.

The current purpose of RNA is to facilitate the replication of DNA by transferring information from the DNA to proteins. RNA consists of chains of up to a few thousand nucleotides. Each nucleotide has phosphate and ribose as one of four bases. All bases have flat ring like structures. As a matter of fact, there is a close relationship between DNA and RNA. It is even possible that historically, RNA plays a role in the production of DNA.

Ribonucleic Acid

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Interferometry

This type of study is vital and essential in astronomy, since the way to study celestial bodies or even the universe is through the means of electromagnetic, sound or light waves. This means that it passes through a medium, much like a science experiment that once a tuning fork is rocked, it emits vibrations.

In science, the most atoms emit light only at radio wavelengths, while gases from celestial bodies like planets, quasars, pulsar are easily detected using these radio waves, and this kind of waves pave the way to know more about the universe and the galaxies.

Also, interferometry uses the concept of superimposition of wavelengths in physics. This means that most astronomers try to combine separate variations of wavelengths in a certain manner that the results of the waves have come up with a meaningful output based on the original forms of the combined wavelengths, especially when the frequency of the waves are the same.

Basic Interferometry, Explained

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A spectrometer is an instrument that is used in analyzing a specific portion of light. This instrument is commonly used in to provide spectral analysis in identifying materials. If you are highly observant, you would have noticed that these instruments have found their way into pop TV culture.

Spectrometers are commonly featured in popular TV crime-solving series where unknown materials are subject to spectral analysis so that their chemical makeup and composition can be determined. The fun part about spectrometers is that they cannot only be used for things found on the ground; they can also be used for things in the sky. Aside from determining the composition of materials found on earth, spectrometers are also utilized in determining the composition of stars.

Early spectrometers used prisms in order to break down light into its components. This was then viewed at different angles on a rotating platform. Modern spectrometers now work by diffracting a light source which involves passing a ray of light through a diffraction grating.

The resulting spectrum is then scanned by a detector in order to measure the different wavelengths and the intensities found in the sample. All of these are controlled by a computer. Nowadays, spectrometers have a wider range of operation and not only scan the visible area of the spectrum but also the highly energetic gamma rays, x-rays and infrared regions that are not visible to the eye.

If the instrument used measures the light in absolute units rather that in relative intensities, the instrument is called a spectrophotometer.

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Another novel use of spectroscopy in astronomy is the determination of a star’s composition. By breaking down a star’s light into its spectra, scientists are able to find out what it is made up of. Breaking down light into its spectrum is actually revealing the energy of its constituent components. By knowing the intensity of a particular wavelength in the spectrum, the astronomer can deduce what makes up a star.

There are certain drawbacks to spectroscopy though. In order to be effective, the light source should be fairly strong enough to break it down into its spectrum. This means that you would need to study very bright stars or have very powerful telescopes in order to magnify the faint light source from the sky.

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In order to understand spectral types, let us go a little into the science of spectroscopy, or breaking down a star’s light into its components. This is done through a spectrometer which passes light from the star to a slit and then breaks it down into its spectrum. Our own sun’s spectrum is visible whenever we look at a rainbow.

Knowing the star’s spectrum opens a lot of different possibilities. From here, you can know its composition, movement and even its surface temperature.

Once the star’s spectrum has been determined, it can then be classified into the different spectral types of different stars. One classification of spectral types is according to surface temperature of the star under observation. These temperatures correspond to the color of the star as we observe them. If you will notice on a starry night, the stars have different colors.

Just like their colors, these stars are called blue, blue-white, white, yellow, yellow-orange, orange giants, and red stars. The blues have the higher surface temperature while the reds have the lower surface temperature. Our own Sun is classified as a yellow star.

Since you cannot just rely on the observed color as seen by your naked eye, it would still be better to use the spectrum obtained to classify the star according to its spectral type.

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This has many practical applications in astronomy since we are able to determine the composition of distant stars without having to travel thousands of miles just to find out what they are made of. Through the use of spectroscopes, the light from a star under study can be focused and then split up. The corresponding spectrographs can then be analyzed to determine which elements make up that particular star. Those trained to read such graphs immediately know a star or material’s chemical composition by the intensity of the light at a particular wavelength. For example, one can know if sodium is present by looking at its two particular bright bands at the 588-589 nanometer wavelengths.

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The organization operates cutting edge observational facilities. It continues to develop advanced instrumentation in studying the Sun both in-house and through outside partnerships, conducts solar research, as well as expands public and educational outreach regarding their studies and researches.

The National Solar Observatory currently runs two facilities. They are located in two different locations. One is located at Sacramento Peak in New Mexico while the other one is at Kitt Peak in Arizona. The facility in Sacramento Peak boasts of a telescope called the Dunn Solar Telescope that has a de-rotated 100 meter vacuum column.

The Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy operates the National Solar Observatory under an agreement which was entered into with the National Science Foundation. The Observatory is being operated for the benefit of the astronomical research community.

Researchers who wish to make use of the facilities of the NSO will have to apply first before they can conduct any kind of research there. Uses of the telescopes on the sites are also often fully booked. It is therefore best that researchers request telescope time in advance to make sure they get the access time they need.

The National Solar Observatory facilities are open for visitors during the day. Guided tours as well as private tours can be arranged depending on the current schedules on the facilities. Night time stargazing programs are also being offered at the Kitt Peak facility. Kitt Peak is located 56 miles southwest of Tucson, Arizona.

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Collecting the Sun's energy on space is much more efficient than when it's done on the Earth's surface. First of all, the obstructions that reduce the capacities of Earth surface solar power collection are almost non-existent in space. Satellite based solar panels can also collect solar power on a 24 hours per day basis. An Earth-based solar collector can only do it for 12 hours at most. 24 hours per day collection can be achieved at the Earth's poles but it is very inconsistent. Not to mention the fact that it can only be done for just six months of the year.

Weather and climate which are very common concerns for surface collectors don't affect an orbiting satellite collector at all. A satellite might also have the capability to direct power to Earth surface locations that need the energy the most.

However, space-based solar power has its own share of problems as well. The most glaring of these problems is on how the solar power collected by the satellite can be transmitted back to Earth. Using wires that extend from the Earth's surface and connect to an orbiting satellite is both impractical and impossible. So SBSP designs that make use of wireless power transmission systems have been proposed by many. These are however still under development and not yet being used.

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JPL (Jet Propulsion Laboratory)

JPL began its work in 1936 when the first batch of rocket experiments was carried out in the Guggenheim Aeronautical Laboratory, part of the California Institute of Technology (GALCIT). Since then, JPL has run projects which include the Galileo mission to the largest planet in our solar system Jupiter and its moons and the Mars rovers in 1997 and 2003. Unmanned missions to all planets in our solar system have also been undertaken by JPL along with extensive mapping missions of the earth and management of the worldwide Deep Space Network. Current projects include the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, the Cassini-Huygens mission to the planet Saturn, the Spitzer Space Telescope, and the Dawn mission to the stars Ceres and Vesta.

JPL has approximately 5,000 Caltech employees and a few thousand additional contractors. Its Twenty-Five-Foot Space Simulator and Space Flight Operations Facility are recognized National Historic Landmarks.

A Visit at JPL

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According to classical physics, an electron's energy must always exceed the energy difference of the electric potential barrier it is attempting to pass, in the same way that a person trying to get past an obstacle must be able to jump higher than the obstacle's height. So applying this to positive and negative ionization, you can think of a person trying to exit and then enter a building through revolving doors. To get out she must have enough energy to push the doors that will let her out and the same applies if she wants to get back in.

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